Aristotle – Poetics (Outline)

David Choi, Gilluis Perez, Juhee Jang, Vaughn Pole
Dr. Brian Rhinehart
THR 503 – Theatre History I
September 16, 2015

Poetics Outline

  1. Overview
    1. Chapter I
      1. Proposal for Discussion
        1. poetry itself
        2. the various forms of poetry
        3. the essential qualities of each kind of poetry
        4. structure of the plot
        5. number and nature of parts of which a poem is composed
      2. Epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambs and music written for flute/lyre
        1. share imitation as an integral principle
        2. differ in that they
          1. utilize different mediums (1.a.ii.3)
          2. imitate different objects (1.b)
          3. imitate in different manners (1.c)
        3. vis-a-vis imitation, they all use rhythm, language and harmony but either singly or in combination
          1. music uses only rhythm and harmony
          2. dancing uses rhythm without harmony (rhythmical movement)
          3. one uses just plain language (i.e. prose or verse)
          4. and other kinds of poetry utilizes all three in combination:
            1. dithyrambic and nomic poetry
              1. uses all three in combination, simultaneously
            2. tragedy and comedy
              1. utilizes all three at intervals
    2. Chapter 2
      1. How objects (i.e. men in action) are to be portrayed
        1. morally good or better than in real life
        2. morally bad or worse than in real life
      2. Artistic mediums which exhibit these differences
        1. painting
        2. dancing
        3. flute-playing and lyre playing
        4. language
      3. Character portrayals in Tragedy vs Comedy
        1. Tragedy
          1. imitates noble actions and actions of good men
        2. Comedy
          1. imitates meaner (worse) persons in satirical fashion
    3. Chapter 3
      1. Differences in the manner objects are portrayed
        1. narration, taking on another personality
        2. speak in his own person, unchanged
        3. present the whole imitation through characters in motion
      2. Origins of words Tragedy and Comedy
        1. Dorians claim the invention of both Tragedy and Comedy
        2. Megarians claim the invention of Comedy
        3. Dorians of the Peloponnese claim the invention of Tragedy
        4. Evidence of their claims lie in the etymology of the words
    4. Chapter 4
      1. Causes of the art of poetry
        1. humans have a natural desire for imitation
          1. humans learn, since childhood, through seeing a likeness; we infer life lessons when we witness and contemplate reproductions
        2. we garner pleasure
          1. objects that we typically view with pain can be contemplated with delight when reproduced with minute fidelity (i.e. dead bodies or ignoble animals)
      2. Evolution of Tragedy
        1. Started out as mere improvisation as in dithyramb and phallic songs
        2. Two kinds of original poets (OP! hehe)
          1. Graver (epic) poets portrayed noble actions and noble individuals
            1. first wrote hymns to the gods and praises of famous men
            2. used heroic verse
            3. were succeeded by Tragedians, since drama was a larger and higher form of art.
          2. Lower poets portrayed actions of meaner people
            1. first wrote satires
            2. used iambic (lampooning) verse
            3. lampooners became writers of comedy
        3. Homer is pre-eminent of OPs
          1. combined dramatic form with excellence of imitation
          2. laid down main lines of Comedy by dramatising the ludicrous instead of personal satire.
        4. A second actor was introduced by Aeschylus, diminishing the importance of a chorus and assigning the leading part to the dialogue
        5. A third actor and scene painting was introduced by Sophocles
        6. A short plot was discarded for a complex plot
        7. Dialogue through iambic measure replaced trochaic tetrameter
    5. Chapter 5
      1. Evolution of Comedy
        1. History of Comedy is not well known because it wasn’t taken seriously.
        2. Actors were originally volunteer performers.
        3. Introduction of comic masks, prologues and increased number of actors are details not well-known.
        4. Comic plots originated from Sicily.
        5. Imitated characters of a lower type, not in the full sense of the word bad.
        6. Consisted of some defect of ugliness which is not painful or destructive.
      2. Elements of Epic Poetry and Tragedy
        1. Both imitate characters of a higher type.
        2. Epic poetry is narrative and uses one metre; tragedy uses several metres.
        3. With regards to length, tragedy endeavors to confine its time to one revolution of the sun while epic poetry has no limits of time.
  2. Tragedy
    1. Chapter 6
      1. Definition of Tragedy
        1. “Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude; its language is embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.”
        2. Tragic imitation implies persons acting with spectacular equipment
        3. Plot, character and thought are the objects of imitation.
        4. Song and diction are the medium of imitation.
        5. Spectacle is the manner of imitation.
      2. Character
        1. All success or failure depends on the actions of these personal agents.
        2. Possess certain distinctive qualities both of virtue and thought.
      3. Required elements of tragedy in order of importance
        1. Plot (structure of the incidents)
        2. Character
        3. Thought
        4. Diction
        5. Song
        6. Spectacle (the least artistic)
    2. Chapter 7
      1. Proper structure of the plot
        1. Must have a beginning, middle and an end.
        2. Proper magnitude
        3. Time limit
    3. Chapter 8
      1. Unity of plot
        1. Plot, being an imitation of an action, must imitate one action and a whole.
        2. The structural union of the parts must be cohesive in that if any one of them is displaced or removed, the whole will be disjointed and disturbed.
        3. Those things whose presence or absence makes no visible difference is not an organic part of the whole.
    4. Chapter 9
      1. Poet vs Historian
        1. Poet relates what could happen
          1. Poetry expresses universal actions according to the law of probability and necessity.
          2. Poetry is therefore more philosophic and of higher importance.
        2. Historian relates what has happened
          1. History is more particular with facts.
      2. Names in Tragedy
        1. Most names are known
          1. Known names help to make events and actions believable
        2. Fictitious characters and events
          1. are altogether pleasurable and good practice
      3. Episodic plots – one act succeeds another without necessary sequence
        1. The worst kind of plot
          1. Poor poets make episodic plots because of their poor ability.
      4. Best practices for plot formation
        1. Tragedy imitates complete actions/events which inspire fear or pity.
          1. Inspiration of fear or pity is best facilitated by surprise.
          2. Events should follow a pattern of cause and effect.
            1. Even coincidences are most striking when they have an air of design.
    5. Chapter 10
      1. Two types of plots
        1. Simple
          1. Action is single and continuous without Reversal of Situation and without Recognition
        2. Complex
          1. Plot with changes accompanied by Reversal, or Recognition, or both.
            1. These changes in plot should arise from the internal structure of the plot.
            2. What follows should be the necessary or probable result of the preceding action.
            3. It makes all the difference whether incidents happen based on what preceded or merely after it.
    6. Chapter 11
      1. Three parts of the Plot
        1. Reversal of Situation
          1. A change by which action veers round to its opposite, always subject to the rule of probability and necessity
        2. Recognition
          1. A change from ignorance to knowledge
            1. Produces love or hate for characters of good or bad fortune
            2. Best form of recognition is coincident with Reversal of Situation
            3. Recognition of persons is one that is most closely intimately connected with plot or action.
              1. Recognition between two persons may be one-sided or both.
        3. Scene of Suffering
          1. A destructive scene or painful action such as death on stage, bodily agony, wounds and the like.
    7. Chapter 12
      1. Quantitative parts of Tragedy
        1. Prologue
          1. entire part of the tragedy which precedes the Parode of the Chorus
        2. Episode
          1. entire part of a tragedy which is between complete choric songs
        3. Exode
          1. entire part of tragedy that has no choric song after it
        4. Choric song
          1. Parode
            1. first undivided utterance of the Chorus
          2. Stasimon
            1. Choric ode without anapaests or trochaic tetrameters
        5. Some tragedies have in addition
          1. songs from the stage
          2. commoi
            1. joint lamentation of the Chorus and actors
    8. Chapter 13
      1. Creating a perfect tragedy
        1. Best type of tragedy has a complex plot (as opposed to simple)
        2. Should imitate actions that arouse pity and fear
        3. How a tragic hero should be portrayed
          1. a virtuous man must not be brought from prosperity to adversity: this is just shocking without arousing pity or fear
          2. a bad man must not be brought from adversity to prosperity
            1. alien to the spirit of Tragedy
            2. possesses no single tragic quality
            3. neither satisfies the moral sense nor calls forth pity or fear
          3. a villain should not be portrayed as passing from good to bad fortune
            1. this would not inspire pity or fear for pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune and fear by the misfortune of man like ourselves.
          4. tragic hero should be a character between the two extremes
            1. not eminently good and just, yet whose misfortune is brought about not by vice or depravity, but by some error or frailty.
            2. must be one who is highly renowned and prosperous
        4. A well-constructed plot
          1. is single in outcome (as opposed to double)
          2. change of fortune should be not from bad to good but good to bad
          3. should come about not as the result of vice, but of some great error or frailty
          4. the character should be better as described above or better
          5. The right ending
            1. The best tragedies and endings are constructed along these lines
            2. Euripedes’ plays which end unhappily have the best ending as they appear to be the most tragic even though the plots are not perfect
          6. double threaded plots are actually second rank, contrary to some popular belief
            1. e.g. Odyssey
              1. has different ending for good and bad characters
              2. the weak character of the spectators make this seem like the best kind of plot as the poets write to appease the audience.
              3. the pleasure derived is not true tragic pleasure and is proper rather to Comedy. e.g. enemies – Orestes and Aegisthus – become friends in the end with no one killed by anybody.
    9. Chapter 14
      1. Arousing Pity and Fear
        1. By spectacular means
          1. This is less artistic and dependent on extraneous aids.
          2. “Those who employ spectacular means to create a sense not of the terrible but of the monstrous, are strangers to the purpose of Tragedy.”
            1. For we must not demand every kind of pleasure from Tragedy, but only that which is proper to it.
        2. Or by the inner structure of the piece (how events are arranged)
          1. This is the better way and indicates a superior poet, “For the plot ought to be constructed that, even without the aid of the eye, he who hears the tale told will thrill with horror and melt to pity at what takes place.”
      2. Circumstances which strike us as terrible or pitiful
        1. Actions between…
          1. Friends
            1. Actions between those near and dear to each other are situations to be sought by the poet. (*best)
          2. Enemies
            1. Actions between enemies do not arouse pity except so far as the suffering is pitiful.
          3. Neither friends nor enemies
            1. Actions between indifferent persons do not arouse pity except so far as the suffering is pitiful.
        2. Skillful handling of traditional plot material
          1. Only three possible ways
            1. Actions may be done consciously by the characters (fully aware).
            2. Actions (deeds of horror) may be done in ignorance, with the tie of kinship or friendship discovered afterwards.
            3. Someone is about to do an irreparable deed through ignorance, and makes the discovery before it’s done.
          2. To be about to act and not act is the worst (totally not skillful handling of the plot)
            1. It’s shocking without being tragic.
            2. This is very rare in poetry.
          3. The better way is to have the deed perpetrated in ignorance, and the discovery made afterwards.
            1. There is nothing to shock us while the discovery produces a startling effect.
    10. Chapter 15
      1. Four character traits to aim for
        1. Good
          1. Good can be found in every class of persons if the purpose/moral is good.
        2. Propriety
        3. True to life
        4. Consistent
      2. As in plot, portraiture of character should be necessary and probable
        1. Unraveling of plot or denouement
          1. Must arise out of the plot itself and not by the Deus ex Machina
            1. dues ex machina “should be employed only for events external to the drama which lie beyond the range of human knowledge, and which require to be reported or foretold; for to the gods we ascribe the power of seeing all things.”
        2. Irrational elements should be avoided
          1. Anything illogical or irrational should be outside the scope of tragedy.
      3. In imitating men, depictions should be more beautiful than in real life.
        1. It should follow the example of good portrait-painters. The portraits should be true to life and yet more beautiful.
    11. Chapter 16
      1. Kinds of recognition
        1. By signs (the least artistic)
          1. Characters are born with marks
          2. Other marks are acquired after birth
            1. scars, external tokens, necklaces, etc.
          3. The use of tokens just as proof is least artistic while a better kind is by turn of incident.
        2. Through inventions of the poet – also not very artistic
        3. Through memory
          1. This happens when the sight of an object awakens a feeling
        4. Through reasoning
          1. From false inference
            1. This is a composite kind of recognition involving faulty reasoning.
      2. Best forms of recognition
        1. The best is recognition that arises from the incidents themselves, where the startling discovery is made by natural means.
        2. The second best type of recognition is done through reasoning.
    12. Chapter 17
      1. Visualizing the whole situation
        1. Poet should imagine himself as a spectator of the action
      2. Working out gestures
        1. Gestures make the emotions appear more convincing.
      3. Sketching the plot
        1. A general outline should be created first, then episodes filled in and amplified in detail.
      4. Episodes
        1. Episodes need to be relevant to the action.
        2. In drama, episodes are short.
        3. In epic poetry, episodes give it length.
    13. Chapter 18
      1. Every tragedy falls in two parts
        1. Complication
          1. Incidents outside the action combined with a portion of the main action
          2. All that extends from the beginning of the action to the part which marks the reversal
        2. Unravelling or Denouement
          1. All that extends from the reversal to the end
      2. Four kinds of tragedy
        1. Complex – Depending entirely on Reversals and Recognition
        2. Pathetic – Where the motive is passion
        3. Ethical – Where the motives are ethical
        4. Simple – Purely spectacle
      3. Poets should strive to include all four kinds of tragedy
      4. In comparing tragedies, plots should be analysed for “Identity exists where the Complication and Unravelling are the same.”
      5. Epic structure is unsuitable for tragedy
        1. Multiple plots are not meant for tragedy.
      6. The chorus
        1. Should be regarded as one of the actors and an integral part of the whole.
        2. Should share the action.
    14. Chapter 19
      1. Thought
        1. Under thought, the following effects must be produced by speech
          1. proof and refutation
          2. the excitation of the feelings, such as pity, fear, anger and the like
          3. the suggestion of importance or its opposite
        2. Dramatic incidents should speak for themselves without verbal exposition
        3. Effects aimed at speech should be produced by the speaker, as a result of the speech.
      2. Diction
        1. Modes of Utterance
          1. This belongs to the art of the Delivery and to the masters of that science (actors?).
            1. What is a command, a prayer, a statement, a threat, a question, an answer, and so forth.
    15. Chapter 20
      1. Elements of language
        1. Letter
          1. Indivisible sounds
            1. vowel
              1. an audible sound without impact of tongue or lip
            2. semi-vowel
              1. an audible sound with impact of tongue or lip
            3. mute
              1. no sound but with impact of tongue or lip
          2. Differentiated by
            1. the form assumed by the mouth and the place where it’s produced
            2. as they are aspirated or smooth
            3. length (long or short)
            4. as they are acute, grave, or of an intermediate tone
        2. Syllable
          1. a non-significant sound, composed of a mute and a vowel
        3. Connecting word
          1. non-significant sound, which neither causes nor hinders the union of many sounds into one significant sound.
          2. it may be placed at either end or in the middle of a sentence.
        4. Noun
          1. composite significant sound, not marking time, of which no part is in itself significant
        5. Verb
          1. composite significant sound, marking time
        6. Inflexion or case
          1. belongs both to the noun and verb, and expresses either the relation ‘of’, ‘to’, or the like; or that of number, whether one or many (man or men); or the modes or tones in actual delivery, e.g. a question or command.
        7. Sentence or Phrase
          1. a composite significant sound, some at least of whose parts are in themselves significant.
    16. Chapter 21
      1. Simple words
        1. Words composed of non-significant elements
      2. Double/compound words
        1. Words composed either of a significant and non-significant elements
        2. Words composed of elements that are both significant.
        3. A word may likewise be triple, quadruple, or multiple in form.
      3. Characteristics of words
        1. Current
          1. In general use
        2. Strange
          1. In use in another country
          2. Can be current and strange but not to the same people
        3. Metaphorical
          1. Application of an alien name (word?) by transference
            1. genus to species
              1. a metaphor taken from a larger subset of word/type
            2. species to genus
              1. a metaphor inferred from a more specific word/type
            3. species to species
              1. a metaphor which is comparable in nature from a wholly different subset of word/type
            4. analogy
              1. A is to B as C is to D
        4. Ornamental
        5. Newly-coined
          1. Never been in local use, but is adopted by the poet himself
        6. Lengthened
        7. Shortened
        8. Altered
          1. Part of the ordinary form is left unchanged, and part is re-cast
    17. Chapter 22
      1. Perfect style of diction
        1. Clear without being mean (inferior)
        2. The clearest style uses only current or proper words but this is also inferior.
        3. Diction which employs unusual words is raised above the commonplace
          1. Strange words, metaphorical, lengthened, etc. Anything that differs from the normal idiom.
        4. Riddles
          1. To express true facts under impossible combinations of words
          2. Uses metaphors
        5. Jargon
          1. Uses strange (or rare) words
        6. Best method to produce clear diction that is not ordinary is to use lengthening, contraction and alteration of words.
        7. Everything should be done in moderation; overuse of poetic diction is grotesque.
        8. It is very important to observe propriety in use of compound words, strange (or rare) words, etc.
        9. The most important by far is to have a command of metaphor.
          1. This cannot be learned.
          2. It is the mark of genius, for to make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances.
        10. Optimal usage of various word types
          1. Compound words are best adapted for dithyrambs
          2. Rare words are best for heroic poetry
          3. Metaphors are best for iambic
          4. Heroic poetry can use all varieties of word types.
          5. Iambic verse/poetry, which reproduces, as far as may be, familiar speech, the most appropriate words are
            1. current or proper
            2. metaphorical
            3. ornamental
  3. Epic Poetry
    1. Chapter 23
      1. Plot in epic poetry should be constructed on dramatic principles
        1. The subject should be of a single action, whole and complete, with a beginning middle and end.
        2. There should be unity and produce the pleasure proper to it.
        3. The structure will differ from the historical composition as it will portray not just a single action but a single time period and all the relevant events within that time period to one or many characters.
        4. The events will not necessarily follow cause-and-effect.
        5. Homer is again noted as a great poet as he diversifies poetry with many events as episodes from a general story.
    2. Chapter 24
      1. Kinds of epic poetry
        1. Simple
        2. Complex
        3. Ethical
        4. Pathetic
      2. Epic poetry requires the same parts as tragedy, with the exception of song and spectacle
        1. Reversals of Situation
        2. Recognitions
        3. Scenes of Suffering
        4. Artistic thoughts and diction
      3. Length
        1. Epic poetry differ from Tragedy in the scale on which it is constructed, and on it metre.
        2. While Epic poetry has a special capacity for enlarging its dimensions
        3. For Tragedy, we cannot imitate several lines of actions carried on at one and the same time.
        4. While in Epic poetry, many events simultaneously transacted can be presented, and if relevant to the subject, add mass and dignity to the poem.
        5. This gives the Epic the advantages of
          1. affording grandeur of effect
          2. affording the listener a diversion
          3. affording varying episodes for diversity
      4. Metre
        1. Tragedy uses the iambic tetrameter.
        2. Epic poetry primarily uses the heroic meter.
      5. The poet should speak as little as possible in his own person, for it is not this that makes him an imitator.
        1. Homer did it right by speaking a few lines then bringing in other characters with their own traits.
      6. Best epic material
        1. While the element of wonderful is good for Tragedy, the irrational is better suited for Epic poetry because there the person acting is unseen.
        2. Epic poetry deals with absurdities well.
      7. Art of telling lies
        1. Homer does this well.
        2. It is a fallacy that if B is true, it is because A happened. This is false inference, common among men.
          1. It possible that A is untrue and so B is not necessarily true.
      8. Probable impossibilities vs improbable possibilities
        1. Poets should prefer probable impossibilities
        2. Their plots must not be composed of irrational parts.
        3. Everything irrational should be excluded. If that’s not possible, anything irrational should lie outside of the action of the play.
      9. Diction should be elaborated in the pauses of the action and not within expressions of characters or of thought.
        1. If the diction is over brilliant, it will obscure character and thought.
    3. Chapter 25
      1. A poet must of necessity imitate one of three objects
  1. Things as they were or are
  2. Things as they are said or thought to be
  3. Things as they ought to be
      1. The vehicle of expression is language
      2. Two kinds of mistakes in poetry
        1. Those which touch its essence
        2. Those that are accidental
      3. Criticisms of the impossible must be justified
        1. by reference to artistic requirements
        2. to the higher reality
        3. to received opinion
      4. Criticism of irrationality and depravity of character is justified when there is no inner necessity to introduce them.
      5. Five most common critical objections to poetry are that the elements are
        1. Impossible
        2. Irrational
        3. Morally hurtful
        4. Contradictory
        5. Contrary to artistic correctness
  1. Comparing Epic Poetry and Tragedy
    1. Chapter 26
      1. Which is the higher type of imitation
        1. Epic Poetry addresses a cultivated audience who don’t need gesture and Tragedy addresses ordinary people
        2. Tragedy’s defect of bad acting and bad flute-playing
          1. Tragedy should not be held accountable for bad performers, for this fault is not inherent in it.
        3. Tragedy is superior in that it has all elements of epic
          1. It may use epic metre
          2. Uses music and spectacle
          3. Produces vivid pleasures through acting
        4. Length
          1. The concentrated effect is more pleasurable (tragedy) over that one which is spread over a long time, and therefore diluted (epic).
        5. Unity
          1. Epic imitation has less unity because of its scope.
        6. Tragedy achieves its end more efficiently and with greater pleasure and is therefore the higher art.
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